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A dating system for Hebrew manuscripts using codicological data

 Fill in the codicological information in your possession for the codicological unit.

*In order to perform dating, data in at least 6 categories is required. The accuracy of the prediction depends on the amount of data.

How to Identify

Examine the script for instances where letters are clearly nested one inside another or form complex interlaces.

Identify the text as belonging to the Hebrew Bible by recognizing specific books, chapters, verses, or characteristic content. Note any layout features typical of biblical manuscripts (e.g., Masoretic notation, specific column arrangements).

Identify the main body of text as belonging to the books of the Hebrew Bible, recognizing specific verses, chapters, and books. Note the absence or minimal presence of extensive commentary.

Identify content dealing with philosophical arguments, theological concepts, mystical interpretations, discussions of Sefirot, Kabbalistic terminology, or known philosophical/Kabbalistic works.

Identify content discussing Jewish law, legal codes, responsa, or interpretations/stories elaborating on the Bible (Midrash Aggadah or Halakha).

Identify the content as prayers, blessings, piyyutim (liturgical poems), or texts structured according to daily, Sabbath, or holiday services.

Observe the paper surface under varying light conditions. Note if it has a distinct gloss or sheen compared to standard matte paper, reflecting light more readily.

Look for instances where letters become progressively smaller towards the end of a line, or where words are split across lines or entire words are moved down to avoid overrunning the margin.

Hold the paper page against a light source. Confirm the absence of any translucent designs or patterns (watermarks) within the paper structure. The paper appears relatively uniform in translucency.

Examine the paper surface for visible horizontal (and possibly vertical) ruling lines, either drawn (e.g., lead point, ink) or impressed/incised.

Identify the first leaf (folio 1 recto) of a quire. Determine if the surface presented is the hair side (often slightly rougher, may show follicle patterns) or the flesh side (smoother).

Examine the paper carefully against a strong light source, possibly using magnification. Look for very faint or subtle indications of the chain line pattern (less frequent, typically thicker lines).

Distinguish between materials: Parchment is typically thicker, more durable, may show hair follicles or vein patterns, and has distinct flesh/hair sides. Paper is thinner, fibrous, and may have laid/chain lines or watermarks.

<img src="https://static.wixstatic.com/media/1e13aa_132a54515f5149aaa25360f29e84da7d~mv2.png" alt="example image" width="100%"> ֿ

Identify the first leaf (folio 1 recto) of a quire. Determine if the surface presented is the flesh side (typically smoother and lighter) or the hair side (rougher, may show follicles).

Look for horizontal (and sometimes vertical margin) lines on the page surface, which may be drawn in ink/pigment (colored) or incised/impressed into the substrate (hard point/lead point).

Identify by physical examination: typically thicker and stronger than paper, with distinct hair and flesh sides, possibly showing follicle patterns, variations in color and texture.

Hold the paper page up to the light. Identify the chain lines. Note if they run as single lines spaced apart, rather than in pairs or groups.

Hold the paper page up to the light. Observe the pattern of the chain lines (less frequent, typically thicker lines). Note if they consistently appear clustered in groups of three.

Examine the edges and surfaces of the leaves. Look for evidence that the material is separating into distinct layers.

Identify the ink color in the text. Brown ink may appear lighter and suggest age, while black ink is common and provides sharpness and clarity.

Observe the color of the ink used for the main text, distinguishing it as brown or dark brown compared to black or lighter shades.

Observe the ink color: it should appear distinctly black, providing strong contrast with the page. Note its intensity and sharpness compared to potentially faded or brown inks.

Check the upper margins for recurring titles (running titles). Examine the centermost fold/opening of quires for specific marks or symbols.

Look in the lower margin for the catchword written at an angle (slanted) rather than horizontally.

Check for features like quire signatures (catchwords, numerals, symbols), foliation/pagination, and chapter/section headings used for ordering and navigation.

Look for textual cues (catchwords) or symbols/numerals (quire signatures) located in the lower or side margins of pages, used to link consecutive pages or quires.

Hold the paper page against a light source. Look for translucent designs or patterns (watermarks) embedded within the paper structure.

Examine the upper margins (especially the top right corner) of the first or last pages of each quire for numbering (numerals, letters, or symbols) indicating the quire's sequence.

Examine the lower margin of the last page of each quire for a catchword matching the beginning of the next quire, or look for sequential numbering/symbols (quire signatures) typically on the first or last page of the quire.

Observe the ends of lines near the justified margin. Look for noticeable stretching or squeezing of letters or inter-word spacing compared to the rest of the line, used to fill the line precisely.

Look at the end of text lines, especially those that fall short of the margin. Identify any drawn or written symbols used purely to occupy the empty space.

Examine the text for instances where a non-alphabetic mark appears directly before the first letter of a word.

Observe the spacing within text lines. Note whether the scribe maintains relatively consistent spacing between words and letters to fill the line width evenly, without excessive gaps or crowding.

Evaluate the overall appearance of the text block. Check if the justified margin is consistently maintained. Look for common strategies used (e.g., fillers, abbreviation, spacing, letter modification) and assess their effectiveness and consistency across multiple pages.

Examine the alignment of the left margin. Observe how the scribe handles line endings – whether lines are consistently filled, if there are deviations, or if specific techniques are used to maintain alignment.

Look for pairs of small holes (prickings) in the left and right margins, aligned horizontally, indicating guides for ruling lines across the page.

Look for impressed or incised ruling lines (not colored). Feel the page for corresponding ridges on the reverse side. The pattern suggests it was applied to each bifolium separately.

Examine the ruling patterns on facing pages (verso and recto) within a quire. Look for identical or perfectly mirrored patterns, suggesting they were ruled together in one action.

Examine the open manuscript. Observe if the text consistently appears only or mainly on the right-hand page (verso), leaving the left-hand page (recto) blank or with minimal text.

Look for visible or tactile ruling lines that are impressed or incised into the page surface, rather than drawn with pigment or lead. Check for corresponding ridges on the reverse side, especially on parchment.

Examine the manuscript pages to see if they are presented clearly and openly, each appearing as a distinct, spread-out unit.

Look for highlighted or decorated elements at the start of text divisions, such as framed boxes, use of different ink colors or sizes, or distinct scripts/fonts.

Look for non-textual visual elements added to the page for aesthetic or structural purposes, such as drawings, painted elements, elaborate frames, or decorated letters.

Examine the manuscript pages and confirm the absence of illustrations, decorated initials, borders, or other non-textual artistic elements.

Examine the bottom margin area, below the main text block, for any handwritten additions distinct from the primary text.

Identify opening words or headings that are set apart by decorative frames, illumination, significantly larger or different script styles, or surrounding ornamentation.

Look for catchwords at the bottom of individual pages linking to the next page. Check for sequential numbering of leaves (foliation) or pages (pagination). Assess the physical alignment of consecutive leaves.

Examine the overall page design, dimensions, and consistency of layout elements (margins, columns, line spacing, text block). Note any specific or unusual formatting.

Examine the position of the final line of text on each page relative to the established lower margin or text block boundary. Note instances where it falls short, extends beyond, or is otherwise misaligned.

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Explanation

Feature Name

Category

The main content of the manuscript consists of texts from the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh).
The manuscript primarily contains the text of the Hebrew Bible itself (as opposed to commentary or related works).
The manuscript's content includes works of Jewish philosophy and/or Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism).
The manuscript contains texts dealing with Halakha (Jewish legal rulings and discussions) and/or Midrash (rabbinic exegesis and interpretation of biblical texts).
The manuscript contains liturgical texts, such as daily prayers (Siddur) or festival prayer books (Machzor).
The manuscript contains text written in the Arabic language, identifiable by its script and linguistic features.
A stylistic feature where one letter is written partially or wholly inside the outline of another, or where letters are intertwined, often for decorative effect or emphasis (distinct from standard ligatures). example image ֿ
The manuscript is written on either parchment (prepared animal skin) or paper, or potentially a mix of both. (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 192)
The paper has undergone a finishing process (e.g., burnishing) that gives its surface a noticeable sheen or gloss.
The paper contains watermarks, which are designs incorporated into the paper mold and visible as translucent areas when held up to light. They can help identify the paper's origin and date.
The paper used in the manuscript does not contain any visible watermarks.
The manuscript is written on paper that has visible ruling lines applied to guide the writing. These lines might be drawn with lead point, ink, or impressed.
The chain lines in the paper are present but very faint or indistinct, requiring careful examination, possibly with strong transmitted light or magnification, to be discerned.
Ruling lines, used to guide the scribe in writing straight and evenly spaced lines of text, are clearly visible on the page surface. (Note: Hebrew explanation confusingly describes paper lines; Ref: Beit-Arié p. 197) example image ֿ
The parchment or paper shows signs of delamination, where it splits into two or more distinct layers, often visible at the edges or damaged areas. This can result from production methods or deterioration. (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 198)
Refers to the pattern of chain lines (the less frequent, typically thicker lines in handmade paper, running parallel to the short side of the original mold). 'Single' likely means they appear individually rather than in close pairs or groups.
The chain lines in the handmade paper are arranged in distinct groups of three, visible when held against light. This pattern is characteristic of certain paper production traditions.
The primary writing material is parchment, made from processed animal skin (e.g., sheep, goat, calf). Its characteristics can help in dating and localization.
In parchment quires, the arrangement follows a pattern where the outermost page (page 1 of the quire) presents its hair side. This often implies adherence to a variation of Gregory's Rule (hair facing hair, flesh facing flesh within the quire). (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 174) example image ֿ
In parchment quires, the arrangement follows a pattern where the outermost page (page 1 of the quire) presents its flesh side. This often implies adherence to Gregory's Rule (flesh facing flesh, hair facing hair within the quire). (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 226) example image ֿ
The manuscript text is written using either brown or black ink. (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 214)
The manuscript text is written using ink that appears dark brown or medium brown in color. (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 214)
The manuscript text is written using black ink, often carbon-based, known for its durability and contrast. (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 214)
May include running titles (repeating text in upper margins indicating content) and/or a mark at the center opening (innermost bifolium) of the quire, possibly to guide the binder during assembly and prevent misfolding. (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 278) example image ֿ
The catchword (the first word(s) of the next page, written at the bottom of the current page) is written diagonally/slanted in the lower margin. (Ref: Sirat 1, p. 42) example image ֿ
The codex is composed of quires (gatherings of folded sheets). Methods were needed to ensure the correct order of quires and sheets was maintained during and after copying. (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 257)
Methods to ensure correct quire/folio order, specifically using markers like catchwords (first word of the next page written at the bottom of the current page) or quire signatures placed in the bottom margin or sometimes side margins. (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 257)
Scribal strategies to manage line endings, including reducing the size of letters towards the end of the line, or dividing words/carrying a whole word over to the next line to maintain justification.
Quires are numbered, with the signature typically placed at the head (top) of the quire, often in the upper right margin of the first recto or last verso. (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 273-274, Sirat 2 p. 133) example image ֿ example image ֿ
Methods to ensure correct quire order, such as quire-level catchwords (the first word/s of the next quire written at the end of the current quire) or quire signatures (numerals/symbols indicating quire sequence). (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 262) example image
Methods used to ensure the correct sequence of individual pages (folios) within the codex, becoming more common over time. Includes page-level catchwords and foliation/pagination. (Ref: Sirat p. 41, Beit-Arié p. 260) example image ֿ
Refers to the overall structure and design of the manuscript pages, including text block dimensions, margins, columns, ruling, placement of decorations or secondary texts, etc. (Ref: SefarData 0A015) example image ֿ
The last line of text on the page is positioned outside the established boundaries (frame) of the main text block, potentially indicating a scribal error or adjustment. (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 295) example image ֿ
Pairs of prickings (small holes) made in the outer margins (left and right) to guide the ruling of horizontal lines across the full width of the page. (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 296) example image ֿ
Ruling executed using a hard point (stylus) that incises the parchment, often creating a ridge on the opposite side. This specific method involves ruling each bifolium (folded sheet) individually before folding or assembly. Ruling could be applied to hair or flesh side, page 'a' (recto) or 'b' (verso). (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 303)
Ruling executed using a hard point (stylus) applied simultaneously to two adjacent pages (leaves) as they lie in sequence within the quire (e.g., the verso of one leaf and the recto of the next). This creates a matching or mirrored ruling pattern across the opening.
Refers to a layout where the text is written primarily or exclusively on the verso side of the leaves ('Amud Bet'), which typically appears on the right side in an open Hebrew codex.
The manuscript pages were ruled using a hard point (stylus) which incised or impressed lines into the substrate (typically parchment) to guide the writing. This is a general indication of the technique being used. (Ref: Sirat 1, p. 35) example image ֿ
Refers to the appearance where each page (folio) is presented clearly, as if fully opened or spread out, similar to a page in a large book.
Graphic elements, such as decorated initial word panels ('opening boxes') or distinct headings/titles, used to mark the beginning of new chapters or important sections. (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 374) example image ֿ
The manuscript includes graphic embellishments such as illustrations, decorated borders, floral motifs, decorated initials, etc., intended to beautify the page and possibly highlight text structure.
The manuscript lacks any significant graphic or artistic decoration; the focus is purely on the text.
Presence of annotations, comments, jottings, or specific requests written by scribes, owners, or readers in the lower margin of the page. (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 160) example image ֿ
The use of decorated initial word panels ('opening boxes') or visually distinct headings/titles, often incorporating ornamentation or special scripts, to mark text divisions.
Scribal techniques used to achieve line justification (usually of the left margin) by either expanding the spaces between letters/words or compressing letters/words within the line. (Ref: Beit-Arié p. 351) example image ֿ
The use of non-alphabetic graphic symbols (e.g., lines, dots, flourishes, simple patterns) to fill the remaining blank space at the end of a line, often to aid justification or improve visual appearance. (Ref: Sirat 1, p. 38) example image ֿ
A specific mark (e.g., dot, comma, or other symbol) is placed immediately before a word, potentially serving as a separator or structural marker. (Ref: Sirat 1, p. 38) example image ֿ example image ֿ
Concerns the scribe's handling of inter-word spacing and letter spacing to ensure lines are filled relatively evenly, avoiding large gaps or overly compressed text, contributing to visual consistency.
General assessment of how the scribe managed line length to achieve justification (typically left margin in Hebrew) and visual consistency across the page.
Concerns the methods used by scribes to manage line endings and achieve justified margins (especially the left margin in Hebrew), dealing with words that are too long or short for the remaining space.

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Hello, the system is under construction. 
In the future, information about the data will be added and the user experience will be improved
API access will also be provided for external connection of systems.

The system was trained using data from the Sparda website and the research of Prof. Malachi Beit-Arie and Prof. Colt Sirat.

The site was built  By Alexander Golberg as part of a master's thesis in information sciences, Bar Ilan.

Guided by: Dr. Gila Priber and Dr. Avshalom Elmaleh

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The site was built by Alex Golberg as part of a master's degree final project, Department of Information Sciences,

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